Fig. 1. Aerial view of one of Nebuchadnezzar II's palaces in ancient Babylon. (Source: Jukka Palm/Shutterstock)

Babylon, a small port town situated on the Euphrates River, grew to become one of the most prosperous cities within Mesopotamia. Today, Babylon is located within modern-day Iraq, roughly 50 miles south of Baghdad. The city originally dates to around 2,000 BCE, and over several millennia it has encompassed a blend of artistic, architectural, and cultural achievements under different empires.

Babylon has also been the seat of famous and powerful rulers, such as Hammurabi, who is known for having enacted the Code of Hammurabi, and Nebuchadnezzar II, who is credited with building the mythical Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Babylon’s position within the cradle of civilization has also connected it to the larger cultural legacy of the area, including the development of cuneiform and written language. For thousands of years, Babylon has repeatedly popped up in myths and Abrahamic stories as a significant site for history and religion, and its global fame has resulted in it becoming the source of inspiration for countless literary and artistic works.

Despite emanating such renown, the city has been subject to violation and destruction in recent history. In 1980, the president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, chose to invade Iran in hopes of solidifying his position as the leader of a unified pan-Arabist state. Despite being tired from its own 1979 revolution, Iran managed to turn the tides of the war and launched an offensive against Iraq. As the conflict continued, Iraqi people were starting to question their faith in their leadership and the seemingly never-ending battles. Saddam Hussein’s massive building project emerged out of this moment as a method of inciting nationalism and garnering support for the war.

Fig. 2. A mural of Saddam Hussein, opposite Nebuchadnezzar, overlooking Babylon as it appeared in ancient times. (Source: Tom Stoddart/Getty Images)

Saddam Hussein imagined himself as the modern reincarnation of Nebuchadnezzar II, and he spent millions on reconstructing Babylon as it was during his reign in 605 BCE. The building program was not intended for conservation and restoration but instead as a tool to legitimize his own regime; reconstructing the archaeological site was not about saving Babylon for Babylon’s sake, but about saving Babylon for Saddam’s sake. The goal was ultimately to conflate his own image with that of Nebuchadnezzar II and push the idea that he was continuing a legacy of greatness in Arab history. By establishing Babylon as under his own dominion, Saddam Hussein claimed its fame and power as his own.

Fig. 3. Saddam Hussein's initials inscriped in a traditional Arabic style at his palace. (Source: Pesha Magid/Atlas Obscura)

Similarly to Nebuchadnezzar, Saddam Hussein chose to have a personal palace erected, and the decoration of the site clearly embodies how the entire building project embodied his own narcissism. The walls of the palace are carved with Arabic calligraphy that resembles religious iconography, but upon closer inspection it becomes clear that these shapes are actually Saddam’s initials. Painted images in the space that supposedly depict highlights of Iraqi civilization range from traditional Babylonian imagery to Saddam’s own towers in Baghdad. Other carvings depict him leading soldiers on the battlefield, and his face is chiseled into stones around the site using techniques that imitate ancient reliefs. After discovering that Nebuchadnezzar had bricks stamped with a declaration of his power and built within the walls, Saddam Hussein ordered the same. His bricks read:

“In the reign of the victorious Saddam Hussein, the president of the Republic, may God keep him the guardian of the great Iraq and the renovator of its renaissance and the builder of its great civilization, the rebuilding of the great city of Babylon was done in 1987.”

Fig. 4. One of many stamped bricks at Babylon describing Saddam Hussein's power and rule. (Source: Dr. Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin)

Saddam Hussein’s reconstruction symbolizes more than just his arrogance, but actually speaks to the dangerous and problematic tradition of re-envisioning the past. In plastering over Babylon with his own image, Saddam has essentially violated its history -- the idea is not to preserve the past, but to reimagine it entirely. Capitalizing upon the memory of ancient ruins is a familiar tactic of fascist rulers, and this strategy is used to construct a narrative that manipulates audiences into conflating present conditions with the glory of the past. The reimagining of art, architecture, and culture are key facets to a tyrannical rule, and the introduction of something new to an ancient site endangers its true memory.

Fig. 5. A relief of Saddam Hussein's profile alongside traditional king imagery, all in imitation of ancient carving styles. (Source: Ali Al-Saadi/Getty Images)

Additionally, the physical space itself and its historical integrity is harmed in this process. Since Saddam’s fall from power in 2003, the entire site has been abandoned and uncared for. The Ministry of Culture, Tourism, and Antiquities has enacted an Iraqi Antiquities and Heritage Law that seeks to protect, conserve, and manage archaeological sites within Iraq. Part of this law includes the documentation of these sites, as well as their presentation to the public, and Babylon falls under its jurisdiction. Babylon’s careful conservation is critical and urgent, and a comprehensive plan was developed in 2011 and officially adopted by 2018. Both the federal and provincial governments have pledged their funding for the conservation project.

However, Saddam Hussein was not the only destroyer of Babylon. In 2009, a delegation from the World Monuments Fund and the United States State department surveyed the archaeological site of Babylon. In a report following the visit, UNESCO stated that there had been serious damages inflicted to the site as a result of U.S. troops and contractors, such as the digging, cutting, and leveling of key structures.

Fig. 6. An interior hall at Saddam Hussein's palace that has since been vandalized since its abandonment. (Source: Ameer Al Mohammedaw/Getty Images)

Following United States President Bush’s orders to invade Iraq in 2003, military helicopters landed directly on the site. Saddam’s palace became occupied as the command center, and American soldiers graffitied and vandalized the interior. An army base was also erected under U.S. direction, resulting in the construction of guard towers and fences in and around Babylon, as well as the presence of heavy tanks that caused damage to the city.

In addition to damages to an archaeological site, U.S. foreign presence in Iraq also led to the loss of other treasured cultural heritage; during the U.S. occupation, the Iraq Museum of Baghdad was looted. Nearby conflict in the area compelled curators and staff to evacuate the museum, and thousands of precious objects were stolen from both the galleries and storage units during the museum’s closure. Among these artworks were some of the most prized possessions to the museum, including the Warka Vase, the Mask of Warka, the Bassetki Statue, the state of Entemena, all of which are thousands of years old. There was international criticism of the United States' handling of the theft given the close proximity of individuals who could have prevented the looting, as well as the general disregard and lack of protection for the museum after occupying Baghdad. The majority of these objects have yet to be recovered, and the existing trails are hazy. The Iraq Museum has already resorted to buying lost pieces back from the looters themselves.

The deliberate destruction or erasure of heritage is a weapon used for suppression, domination, and exploitation, and these events largely surround countries engaged in armed conflict. In other cases, the destruction of cultural heritage qualifies as collateral damage. Regardless of the scenario, the threat of war and opposition endangers cultural property, and it is imperative that its protection is prioritized during periods of conflict. UNESCO's 1954 Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict encourages parties to "adopt peacetime protective measures for the safeguarding of cultural property," in addition to outlining these strategies. Despite the existence of this document, it is clear that states and organizations often don't uphold its principles and face no genuine consequences. It becomes up to the international community to ensure that there is accountability for these transgressions, as well as the need for the protection of cultural heritage to be emphasized.