The Citadel of Erbil has been an UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2014, and it sits at the center of Erbil, which is in northern Iraq, and serves as the Iraqi-Kurdish capital. Erbil is one of the oldest towns in continuous habitation in Iraq, and it is first mentioned in the cuneiform records of the Sumerian King Shulgi in 2,000 BC and called Arba Elu (‘four gods’) by the Babylonians and Assyrians. Throughout antiquity it was known as Arbela. It takes the title of longest continuously-occupied site with up to 8,000 years of habitation. 

The Citadel of Erbil has an important and rich history. It has been the site of a temple to Ishtar, as well as an important center of Nestorian Christianity. It survived a 3rd century BCE battle between Alexander the Great and the Persian King Darius, a 12th century Mongol invasion, as well as an 18th century siege by Nader Shah. In addition, Saddam Hussein ordered a series of reconstruction efforts in the 80s. Andrew Lawler wrote for Archaeology magazine, “at various times over its long history, the city has been a pilgrimage site dedicated to a great goddess, a prosperous trading center, a town on the frontier of several empires, and a rebel stronghold.” 

The citadel is now a multilayered architectural mound, and it has shaped the urban fabric of the settlement.. The mound is referred to as a tell, an archaeological term for mounds that are a product of successive settlements and natural sediment. The mound is 32 meters high and fans out over 25 acres.

Throughout the citadel, there are traditional brick courtyard houses, as well as a mosque, hammam and other historic sites. The mosque dates back to the 13th century, and there was a reportedly “insensitive” reconstructive alteration in the 50s. In 2022, there was a new plan issued to reconstruct and preserve the mosque. The hammam, although the oldest in the citadel, dates back to only the 1700s, as recorded by King Abdulla. Under these more recent constructions, however, there are countless antiquities buried into this multi-layered mound. UNESCO preserves over thirty meters of this archaeological site with artifacts going back to the very beginnings of urbanization in Mesopotamia.

Throughout excavations, archaeologists have discovered ancient artifacts, as well as artillery shells dating back to the US-led invaision of Iraq in 2003, and Saddam Hussein’s crackdown on a Kurdish uprising in 1991. There is also a site of a dilapidated public bath marked with a Star of David, which is a testament to the large Jewish community that lived there before leaving for Israel in the 1940s. This citadel and settlement is a perfect example of how history accumulates physically in lived spaces. The civil unrest throughout the region has made it difficult to fully uncover the history buried there. In addition, 19th century homes atop the mound made it impossible to fully excavate. 

In 2008, the government moved out the citadel’s last permanent residents to start renovating the site. In 2013, there was the first systematic excavation. Radar imaging discovered two large stone structures below the citadel that are believed to be the remains of a renowned temple dedicated to Ishtar, the goddess of love and war, which is referenced in ancient texts. In 2014, however, Baghdad cut off state revenues to the regional government, and the restoration work was halted. Visitors and residents have already been returning, in part due to the fact that much of the surrounding sites are surrounded by war. 

The High Commision for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) was working for years to get the citadel recognized by UNESCO, and they are now working in a strategic partnership to conserve and rehabilitate the citadel. In 2017, work was being done to protect and restore the citadel, while fighting was destroying many historic sites across Iraq. Around this time, two new museums were opened, one dedicated to gems, and one to textiles. These new museums are a testament to the interest in the cultural heritage of the citadel, even if other forces make it difficult to uncover more. 

Many foregin powers have contributed to this project, including the Turkish government in 2018. Turkey is politically and economically invested in the fate of Iraqi cities like Erbil and Baghdad, with the Kurdistan Regional Government of Iraq based in Erbil and the Iraqi Federal Government in Baghdad. This just serves as an example for the political power in the protection of heritage sites, since the Turkish government invested much more in Baghdad as they shifted their diplomatic alliance. 

There is still much to uncover in the Citadel of Erbil, and one day we hope to learn more about what’s hidden under the layers of the city’s mound.